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Baker's Dictionary

Brief descriptions of ingredients and bakery processes are given in alphabetical order below.  We hope you find this page of use - possibly as a learning tool or reference source.

Activated Dough Development
A method designed to achieve full dough development without the need for bulk fermentation.  Full dough development is achieved by a combination of; intense mixing, which inputs high energy over a short time and by the addition of chemicals known as oxidising and reducing agents. 
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Aeration
Aeration is the term given to the incorporation of air or gas within batter, dough, fats, egg whites etc. for the purpose of increasing their volume producing lighter structures.  Three ways this incorporation can occur are by physical means, as for vigorous mixing (whipping), chemical means, as for the reaction between sodium bicarbonate (alkali) and an acid liberating carbon dioxide gas, or biologically as is seen in yeast fermented dough.
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All-in Cake Mixing Method
The more modern way of making cake batters utilises this method.  The fat or oil is blended with the dry ingredients on slow speed.  The liquids (water, egg, milk) are added and mixed on slow speed.  If fat is used in the first stage and after the liquids have been incorporated, the mixing speed can be increased to fast.  The increase in mixing speed allows for the batter to become more aerated similar to the more traditional batters.  This is the style of mixing employed by our home baking mixes.
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Amaretto
Amaretto is an almond-flavoured liqueur that is actually made from apricot kernels.  The liqueur originated in Saronno, Italy where the crisp amaretto cookies originated.
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Ascorbic Acid
Also known as vitamin C.  Found in Citrus fruits but also other fruits and vegetables, potatoes and green vegetables are the most important sources in the UK diet..  Acts as a reducing agent then an oxidant during the mixing process of a dough and is therefore used as a bread improver.  It is also used by flour millers to mature the flour.  The vitamin properties are lost during baking as they are susceptible to heat unless modified for protection against heat.  (see vitamins)
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Bagel
A dense, firm textured, chewy, ring shaped roll.  Its glossy golden brown crust is achieved by placing the rings of dough into boiling water before baking.
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Baguette
A long (30" / 75cm) thin stick of bread with a thick / flinty crust and very open crumb structure.  The open crumb is due to a bulk fermentation of around four hours.
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Bain-Marie
A container of food product is placed into another filled with water.  Both are then placed on or in a heat source to melt or slowly cook the food.  The water protects delicate foodstuffs from direct heat which would otherwise burn or cook too quickly.  Melting of chocolate and thinning of fondant is its typical application in the bakery.
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Baking Powder
Is used to aerate the product it is part of.  In cakes it gives the rise in the oven as yeast does for bread.  Baking powder is a mixture of an alkaline a one or more acids.  When the baking powder is wetted and heat is applied, carbon dioxide gas is released.  It is this gas that expands the cells formed during the mixing stage of the cake batter, giving the cake its volume.  There are various forms of baking powder which have varying reaction rates; slow and fast acting and some which contain a combination of the two called double acting baking powder.  The double acting version is generally used in the baking industry unless specific characteristics are required and therefore a tailor-made baking powder will be used. 
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Baking stone
A round or rectangular plate of stone or unglazed, tile-like material used to provide the baking qualities of a brick oven floor. The stone is placed on the lowest oven rack. Follow the manufacturer's directions regarding whether preheating the stone with the oven is recommended. The product to be baked or the product in its pan are placed on the stone to bake.
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Baking Times & Temperature
Although we have set baking temperatures and times for each product you will always have to allow some degree of flexibility with them because all ovens vary in temperature set and actual temperature generated.  Convection ovens also run 20-30^oC hotter, so allowances must be made for these.  Below is a guide to the temperatures used for our products.  

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Barley flour
A low-gluten flour made from hulled barley. It imparts a sweet taste, moisture, and relative lightness to cakes, cookies, and quick breads.
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Bread Making - The Science

Bread is the product of baking a mixture of flour, water, salt, yeast and other ingredients. The basic process involves mixing of ingredients until the flour is converted into a stiff paste or dough, followed by baking the dough into a loaf.  Bread making involves the following basic steps:

To make good bread, dough made by any process must be extensible enough for it to relax and to expand while it is rising.  A good dough is extensible if it will stretch out when pulled. It also must be elastic, that is, have the strength to hold the gases produced while rising, and stable enough to hold its shape and cell structure.

Two proteins present in flour (gliadin and glutenin) form gluten when mixed with water. It is gluten that gives dough these special properties. Gluten is essential for bread making and influences the mixing, kneading and baking properties of dough.  When you first start to bake bread the mixing is important.

Mixing and its effects
Mixing fulfils two functions: to evenly distribute the various ingredients and allow the development of a protein (gluten) network to give the best bread possible. Each dough has an optimum mixing time, depending on the flour, additives and mixing method used.  Too much mixing produces a dough that is very extensible with reduced elastic properties.  Undermixing will not fully develop the dough, which will not have the capability to retain gas, therefore the final loaf will lack volume and have poor appearance inside.

Fermentation
Once the bread is mixed it is then left to ferment (rise).  As fermentation takes place the dough slowly changes from a rough dense mass lacking extensibility and with poor gas holding properties, into a smooth, extensible dough with good gas holding properties.  The yeast cells multiply, the formed gluten strands join together to form networks and alcohol and carbon dioxide are formed from the breakdown of carbohydrates (starch, sugars) that are found naturally in the flour.  The yeast uses sugars in much the same way as we do, that  it breaks sugar down into carbon dioxide and water.  Enzymes present in yeast and flour speed up this reaction.  When there is plenty of oxygen present the following reaction occurs:

The energy which is released is used by the yeast for growth and activity.  In a bread dough where the oxygen supply is limited, the yeast can only partially break down the sugar.  Alcohol and carbon dioxide are produced in this process known as alcoholic fermentation.

The carbon dioxide produced in these reactions causes the dough to rise and the alcohol produced mostly evaporates from the dough during the baking process.  During fermentation each yeast cell forms a centre around which carbon dioxide bubbles form.  Thousands of tiny bubbles, each surrounded by a thin film of gluten form cells inside the dough piece.  The increase in dough size occurs as these cells fill with gas.

Kneading/Moulding

Any large gas holes that may have formed during rising are released by kneading.  A more even distribution of both gas bubbles and temperature also results.  The dough is then allowed to rise again and is kneaded if required by the particular production process being used.  During the final rising (proving) the dough again fills with more bubbles of gas, and once this has proceeded far enough the doughs are transferred to the oven for baking.

Dough Rising

General appearance - large gas holes lined with gluten with smaller holes and ingredients in between these.

After two hours rising gluten strands form a lattice as the dough reaches the required size.

Baking
The baking process transforms an unpalatable dough into a light, readily digestible, porous flavourful product.  The physical activities involved in this conversion are complex but the fundamentals of these are explained.

As the intense oven heat penetrates the dough the gases inside the dough expand, rapidly increasing the size of the dough. This is called "ovenspring" and is caused by a series of reactions: Gas + heat = increased volume or increased pressure. Gas pressure inside the thousands of tiny gas cells increases with the heat and the cells become bigger.

A considerable portion of the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast is present in solution in the dough. As the dough temperature rises to about 40°C, carbon dioxide held in solution turns into a gas, and moves into existing gas cells. This expands those cells and overall the solubility of the gases is reduced.  The oven heat changes liquids into gases by the process of evaporation and thus the alcohol produced evaporates.  Heat also has an effect on the rate of yeast activity. As the temperature rises the rate of fermentation increases, and so does the production of gas cells, until the dough reaches the temperature at which yeast dies (approximately 46°C).  From about 60°C onwards stabilisation of the crumb begins. Starch granules swell at about 60°C, and in the presence of water, released from the gluten, the outer wall of the starch granule cell bursts and the starch inside forms a thick gel-like paste, that helps form the structure of the dough.  From 74°C upwards the gluten strands surrounding the individual gas cells are transformed into the semi-rigid structure commonly associated with bread crumb strength.  The natural enzymes present in the dough die at different temperatures during baking. One important enzyme, Alpha-amylase, the enzyme which breaks starch into sugars, keeps on performing its job until the dough reaches about 75°C.  During baking the yeast dies at 46°C, and so does not use the extra sugars produced between 46-75°C for food. These sugars are then available to sweeten the bread crumb and produce the attractive brown crust colour.  As baking continues the internal loaf temperature increases to reach approximately 98°C. The loaf is not completely baked until this internal temperature is reached. Weight is lost by evaporation of moisture and alcohol from the crust and interior of the loaf. Steam is produced because the loaf surface reaches 100°C+. As the moisture is driven off, the crust heats up and eventually reaches the same temperature as the oven.  Sugars and other products, some formed by breakdown of some of the proteins present, blend to form the attractive colour of the crust. These are known as "browning" reactions, and occur at a very fast rate above 160°C. They are the principal causes of the crust colour formation.

Cooling
In bakeries bread is cooled quickly when it leaves the oven. The crust temperature is over 200°C and the internal temperature of the crumb about 98°C. The loaf is full of saturated steam which also must be given time to evaporate. The whole loaf is cooled to about 35°C before slicing and wrapping can occur without damaging the loaf.

A moist substance like bread loses heat through evaporation of water from its surface. The rate of evaporation is affected by air temperature and the movement of cool air around the loaf.

In a bakery there are special cooling areas to ensure efficient cooling takes place before the bread is sliced and wrapped.
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Buckwheat flour
A gluten-free flour made by grinding hulled buckwheat seeds. It is not a relative of wheat. Originating in Russia, buckwheat has a distinctive flavor and is used in pancakes and some baked goods, such as multi-grain breads. Russian blini are made with buckwheat flour. Groats and kasha also are produced from buckwheat.
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Butter
Is made from the fat part of milk.  The butter you use contains about 16% moisture and may or may not contain salt.  This is vital to know if making bread with butter containing salt as this extra salt may need to be compensated for in the recipe.  The butter used in Olde English Home Baking Co. mixes contains 99% butter fat and is called a concentrated butter.  The removal of the water delays the onset of rancidity, common to butter.
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Calcium Propionate
Used in bread as a mould inhibitor.  It is now a consumer acceptable ingredient, in white sliced bread, in the UK as mould-free shelf lives of a least a week are becoming common place.  
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Calcium Sulphate
A mineral salt often known as gypsum and used in plaster of Paris.  If added to a yeast fermented dough the sulphite ion exerts a stimulating effect on the yeast activity and strengthens the dough gluten structure improving gas retention and loaf volume.
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Calories
The energy value for food is measured by calories.  A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1ºC.  Generally food is measured in larger amounts, kilocalories (kcal).  A kilocalorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1ºC.  The internationally recognised unit of energy is the joule (J) but the larger value kilojoule (KJ) is used. 1kcal x 4.19 = 1KJ.
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Caramelisation
The thermal transition of sugar, as occurs in the production of caramel or the browning of the crust in bakery products during baking.  It proceeds in a series of reactions that convert the sugar into complex compounds that vary in colour from pale yellow to dark brown, and changing taste from sweet pleasant to acrid and bitter.
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Caraway Seeds
Small fruit of the aromatic herb Carum carvi.  It is shaped like a sickle and possesses an aromatic smell and a distinctive warm flavour.  Complimentary addition to rye bread.
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Carob Powder
Finely ground beanlike dried pod also known as locust bean, a fruit from the tree Ceratonia siliqua.  It is roasted and obtains a colour and flavour similar to cocoa and is used to make cocoa powder extenders.
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Chocolate
Chocolate is produced from beans grown on the South American tree (Theobroma cacao).  The trees bear fruit after five years of growth.  This fruit is similar in size and shape to a rugby ball.  Depending upon cocoa type, this fruit can be yellow, orange-like or brown.  Inside this fruit the cocoa beans can be found, usually 30-40 in each fruit.  With these is a sticky, sweet substance called a pulp.  This is used to bring about the characteristic colour and taste to the beans.

The pulp and beans are placed into containers or piled under banana leaves and left to ferment.  Bacteria and yeasts turn the sugar in the pulp into acids which affect the beans.  The beans darken and increase in temperature.  After 3-7 days the beans are dried in special equipment under the sun.  When fully dried the beans are then ready for processing into chocolate.

Cocoa butter and cocoa powder are first made.  The shells of the beans are first removed and the beans are roasted to improve the colour and flavour.  The beans are then ground to a fine particle size.  The ground beans (liquor) are the pressed to separate the butter.  The remaining pressed cake is ground once more to produce cocoa powder.

Cocoa powder can be modified by treatment with an alkaline.  Products made from using alkalised cocoa powder will be richer in colour and flavour.

Chocolate can finally be produced by mixing quantities of cocoa butter, cocoa powder, milk, sugar, vanilla, lecithin together in an extremely controlled manner.  This milk chocolate (couverture) is used for quality sweets, Easter eggs and bar chocolates.  It is a skill to work it as the chocolate must be tempered before use.  Coating chocolate was designed to eliminate the necessity for tempering but it is of inferior quality to couverture chocolate.  Coating chocolate has the cocoa butter replaced by vegetable fats and oils.
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Chorleywood Bread Process
Developed by the Flour Milling and Baking Research Association based in Chorleywood, England.  It uses mechanical and chemicals to eliminate the bulk fermentation stage of bread production.  The dough receives intense mixing in a specially designed mixer for between 2-4 minutes.  The recipe differs with addition of oxidants (Ascorbic Acid), hard fat, extra water and yeast and a lower protein flour.  Modern versions of this mixer can mix under pressure to obtain the maximum efficiency from the oxidant and then switch over to vacuum which reduces the cell structure of the bread to obtain a fine and even structure.
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Convection Oven
An oven where the heat transmission from the heat source to the product is generally assisted by forced air circulation from fans or blowers.  Forced convection improves the uniformity of the bake and is used in many of today's ovens.  They generally require setting 20-30°C lower than conventional ovens to achieve the same bake.
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Conversion - Celsius - Fahrenheit
°Celsius = 5/9 (°F - 32)
°Fahrenheit = (9/5 x °C) + 32
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Corn Flour
From corn/maize is used as a thickener for example in custards and can also be used to part replace wheat flour in cakes to give a more tender crumb.  As the cornflour contains no gluten, when replacing some of the wheat flour the total protein content of the cake is reduced and a more fragile crumb is produced.  It is not recommended to part replace wheat flour with cornflour in fruit cakes as the fruit could sink during baking.
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Cream of Tartar
Potassium acid tartrate, a fast reacting leavening acid which is not used much today, but is worth mentioning as it enhances whiteness when added to Angel Food Cake.
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DATEM
An emulsifier, diacetyl tartaric esters of mono- and diglycerides.  The main emulsifier for crusty bread as when used in a fermented dough it improves dough tolerance, gas retention, loaf volume and crustiness.
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Dextrose
Also known as Dextrose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide).  It is found naturally in fruits and honey or is produced commercially by acid conversion of mainly wheat or maize starch.  It is used in bread to aid fermentation and is used in many bakery products to impart crust colour without over-sweetening.
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Diastatic Activity
The action of diastatic enzymes breaking down starch into simpler carbohydrate products, ultimately dextrose and maltose.  Malt flours are graded in their diastatic activity and are used as bread improvers for their benefits to increased volume and crust colour and crustiness.
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Double Acting Baking Powder
A baking powder that contains both slow and fast reacting leavening acids.  Products containing such a baking powder will receive some aeration during preparation but most during the baking process when it is required most.  Scone is an example of when a double acting baking powder is beneficial.
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Dried Fruit Preparation
When adding dried fruit to sweet breads or cakes they must be first washed clean and soaked to absorb moisture.  If added unsoaked, the fruit will absorb moisture from the surrounding crumb causing dry eating products.  The fruit should be well drained, especially if adding to a bread dough, as the extra water will make the dough very soft and unworkable.  Liqueurs and spirits can also be added at the soaking stage for added flavour.
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Egg
Eggs used in our recipes can either be fresh shell eggs or pasteurised liquid whole egg.  Whole egg comprises 65% albumen and 35% yolk.  Albumen contains 86% moisture, 11% protein and 3% carbohydrates and lipids.  Yolk contains approximately 51% moisture, 30% lipids, 16% protein.  For use in recipes a good guide for weights is; large eggs (60g / 2oz), medium eggs (50g / 1¾oz), small eggs (40g / 1½oz).  We recommend to use large eggs for ease of use if weighing accurately.
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Emulsifier
A surface active substance with affinity to both water and lipids and therefore, in food, has the ability to form an emulsion from two immiscible liquids.  It achieves this by reducing the surface tension of both components.  Emulsifiers are used in mayonnaise, sponges, cakes, bread and many other bakery products.  Typical emulsifiers include monoglycerides, DATEM, Sodium Stearoyl-2-Lactylate.  (see surfactant)
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Endosperm
In wheat grain, this is the food source for the generation of a new plant.  It makes up approximately 85% of the wheat grain and is composed of mainly starch and some protein.  When milled, the result is white wheat flour, used for making bread, cakes, biscuits and pastry. 
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Flat Icing
A mixture of sugar and water and optional fat and flavours.  Applied to sweet breads and rolls.
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Flour
Because there are so many types of flours all differing in functionality, we use a range of flours within our mixes, depending on product type.  Generally, biscuits contain low protein soft flours with 6-8% protein, cake flours contain low protein soft wheats with 8-9% protein and bread flours will vary because of product type and process but are milled from hard wheats with protein contents from 11-14%. 
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Food Pyramid

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Gelatin
A protein substance of animal origin, usually pig or cow.  It is soluble in warm water and coagulates to a gel on cooling.  It has excellent whipping and moisture retention properties.  Bavarois is an example of its use.
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Gelatinisation
The process where starch granules take up water and swell upon heating and as the temperature increases, a viscous paste is formed.  Ultimately, with continued heating, the cell walls of the granules burst and release their contents into the surrounding suspension, which loses some of its earlier viscosity that is attributable to the swollen starch granules.
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Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)
All food production should be carried out under Good Manufacturing Practice.  Consistent, wholesome food is not possible without using the following ten principles:
1.   Writing procedures
2.   Following written procedures
3.   Documenting for traceability
4.   Designing appropriate facilities and equipment
5.   Maintaining facilities and equipment
6.   Validating work
7.   Job competence
8.   Cleanliness
9.   Component control
10. Auditing for compliance

Overview of Good Manufacturing Practice for Food:
Personnel
Any person who is shown to have a illness or any abdominal source of microbial contamination that may cause food contamination shall report such conditions and be excluded from operations.
All persons working with food processing shall conform to hygienic practices such as wearing outer garments, washing/sanitising hands, maintaining gloves and wearing hairnets.
Building and Surroundings
The grounds around a food manufacturing site under the control of the owner must protect against possible food contamination.  Methods include properly stored materials & equipment, removal of waste, effective gardening and pest control.
The building must be suitable in size, construction and design to facilitate maintenance and sanitary operations.  
The building must be in good repair and provide adequate lighting.
Sanitary Operations
Building, fixtures and other physical facilities of the plant shall be maintained in a sanitary condition and shall be kept in repair to prevent food from becoming adulterated within the meaning of the act.
Cleaning and sanitising substances shall be free from undesirable microorganisms and shall be safe under the conditions of use.  Toxic chemicals shall be identified and stored correctly.
No pests shall be allowed in any area of a food plant.  Effective measures shall be taken to exclude pests from the processing areas and to protect against pest contamination.
Cleaned and sanitised portable equipment and utensils should be stored in a location and manner that protects against contamination.
Sanitary Facilities and Controls
Hand washing facilities shall be adequate and convenient and be furnished with running water at a suitable temperature.
Rubbish shall be conveyed, stored and disposed of as to minimise the development of odour and protect against pests and food contamination.
Equipment and Utensils
All plant equipment and utensils shall be adequately cleanable and properly maintained.
Instruments and controls used for regulating or recording temperatures, pH, or other conditions shall be adequately maintained, and adequate in number for their designated uses.
Process and Controls
Appropriate quality control operations shall be employed to ensure that food is suitable for human consumption.
Overall sanitation of the plant shall be under the supervision of one or more competent individuals.
Use of a quality control operation in which the CCP's (Critical Control Points) are identified and controlled during manufacturing.
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Glucose
Another name for Dextrose.
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Gluten
This is formed when the wheat flour proteins, gliadin and glutenin, are mixed intensely with water.  The mixing transforms the discrete protein particles into a cohesive three-dimensional structure that imparts to the dough its characteristic visco-elastic properties.  Without the formation of such a structure the carbon dioxide gas produced by the yeast will not be retained in the dough, therefore the bread will have poor volume and a dense crumb structure. 
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Glycerine
A humectant added to bakery products, especially cakes, to increase the shelf life by; retaining moistness and increasing mould-free shelf life.
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Golden Syrup
This golden coloured syrup is a by-product from the manufacture of sugar.  It consists of non-crystallised sugar, minerals and water.  It is most commonly used in Ginger based products like biscuits and cakes.
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Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)
HACCP is a science-based process control system for food safety designed to reduce the possibility of chemical, physical or microbiological contamination.  There are seven HACCP principles to follow, which will enable effect control of any any risks associated with food production.
1. Perform a hazard analysis to identify and list the food safety hazards reasonably likely to occur in the production process and the preventative measures necessary to control the hazards.
2. The critical control points (CCP's) of each process must be identified.  A CCP is a point or procedure at which control can be applied and a food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated or reduced.
3. The critical limits for preventative measures associated with each CCP must be established.  A critical limit is the maximum or minimum value that must be controlled at a CCP.
4. The monitoring requirements for CCP's must be established.  Monitoring consists of observations or measurements taken to assess whether a CCP is within the established critical limit.
5. HACCP plan must include corrective action when monitoring indicates a deviation from a critical limit.  Actions must dispose the noncompliant product and correct the cause of the deviation.
6. Develop and maintain effective record keeping procedures.  Consistent, reliable records should be generated during the operation of the plan and must be available for review.
7. HACCP systems must be verified periodically to see if the systems are in compliance with the HACCP plan and if the plan need modification and revalidation to achieve the food safety objective.
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Hearth Bread
Bread of varying shapes made from slightly stiffer doughs which are baked on the sole of the oven without the support of tins.  The resulting bread has very good crust formation and flavour generated.
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High Ratio Cakes
Contain higher levels of sugar and total liquids (water, egg, milk) to the weight of flour.  Special flour and shortening are used.  The flour (very fine particle size) can either be chlorinated or heat treated and the shortening will contain emulsifiers (high ratio shortening).  The advantages to the baked cake, from containing extra sugar and liquid, is that it will be very moist and tender and will stay fresher eating for longer compared to standard (low ratio) cakes.  A disadvantage will be that if the cake is wrapped it will mould sooner than the standard (low ratio) cakes unless other modifications to the recipe are made to retard mould growth.  High ratio cakes are very popular in the UK and USA.  Mainland Europe tend to prefer the less sweet and more firmer low ratio cakes.
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High Ratio Shortening
Is 100% fat with added emulsifier.  The emulsifier allows for greater proportions of water to be incorporated into the batter.  High ratio shortenings in USA contain more emulsifier than in the UK.  They were developed for high ratio cakes which contain high quantities of sugar and water.  They are white in colour and do not contain any added salt or water.
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Hydrogenated Shortening
Manufactured by injecting hydrogen gas through purified oil.  This gas controls the firmness of the resulting shortening.  An emulsified shortening also contains mono- and di-glycerides.  This is beneficial for the production of high ratio cakes, which contain more sugar and liquids to the weight of flour than in standard cake formulations.
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Lard
Animal fat from pigs is considered the best fat for the production of bread.  It is also used in pie doughs.
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Lipids
A collective term for fats.
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Malt
A cereal, usually barley, wheat or triticale which is partially germinated under controlled heat and humidity then heat treated to form a powder.  Malt is also available in liquid form, malt extract.  Malt is rich in maltose, enzymes and flavour and therefore is an excellent ingredient for bread to aid fermentation, volume and flavour.
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Margarine
Originally developed as a substitute for butter, most commonly made from vegetable oils and churned with milk.  The margarine may also contain colour, flavour, vitamins and emulsifiers.  The spreads contain higher amounts of water and emulsifiers and cannot be called margarine.  Some margarines have been specially formulated with higher melting point fats to replace butter in croissants and Danish pastries.
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Marzipan
A mixture of almonds and sugar ground together producing a smooth paste used for covering cakes and modelling
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Measurement Conversion British - American
There are significant differences between the measures used for ingredients in British and American recipes.  For example, a British standard tablespoon holds 17.7ml, while the equivalent in America holds just 14.2ml.  Similarly a British Pint measures 20 fluid oz compared to just 16 fluid oz in America.  Many home baking American recipes are based upon an 8 oz cup for measurement.

Spoons

Solid Measures

Liquid Measures

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Niacin
Also known as nicotinic acid.  One of the B group vitamins found naturally in meats, milk, yeast and leafy vegetables.  It is one of the vitamins required to be added, by law, to flour.  (see vitamins)
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Nuts
The definition for nuts is for dry, one-seeded, non-opening fruits of which the fruit wall is hard and brittle, sometimes woody.  There are many types of edible fruits which are called nuts because they look nut like.  Examples of which include peanuts which are actually pulses and almonds which are the seeds of stone fruits.  After processing, nuts are available in many formats; shelled, roasted, blanched, nibbed, strip, flour, butter, oil, puree and extracts.

Some of the most common nuts which we utilise in the home bakery include:

Coconut - A very unique fresh flavour comes from this nut.  Coconut comes from    the coconut palm, cultivated in the tropics.  It is used as desiccated, powder or milk.

Hazelnut - An expensive but quality flavoured nut.  Best used in high quality bakery    products like Danish Pastries.

Peanuts - A pulse not a nut.  It is relatively cheap and very common in England, often eaten on its own.  Recently it has received bad publicity due to the greater    awareness of an allergic reaction to the nut by some people which, in the worse    scenario, can kill within minutes.

Pecan - These show some similarity to the walnut, but are longer in shape and have    their own exquisite taste and mouthfeel.  Pecans are used within American style    products.

Walnuts - Fruits from the walnut tree grown in southern Europe and California.  The    nut is quite large so when it is used it is usually chopped, but if left whole it makes    excellent decoration.
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Oats
Oats are used in bakery products in the whole form.  They are essential when making Flapjacks and are used in varieties of cakes and biscuits.  

Oats have been shown to have benefits in preventing cancer.  Too much protein in the diet has been shown to encourage the growth of certain types of cancer.  But oats contain substances called protease inhibitors, which help prevent the protein eaten from being fully digested.  They also stop the conversion of normal cells to malignant ones in the primary stages of cancer.  Oats even activate dormant supplies of the main male sex hormone testosterone, boosting sex drive.  This makes Flapjacks much more appealing. 

Oats do contain small amounts of gluten and therefore must be avoided by coeliac sufferers.
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Oil
Use vegetable oil in our recipes unless stated otherwise.  Only use Olive oil for savouries and breads as it imparts a strong flavour to the products in which it is used in.  The basic difference between oils and fats are that oils are liquid at room temperature whereas fats are solid at the same temperature.
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Pasteurisation
The heating process applied to eggs and milk to kill of microorganisms such as Salmonella.  It will not render the product sterile but enough for the product to last a few days under refrigeration.  The process is a combination of time and temperature, too high a temperature will drastically affect flavour and colour, also in the case of eggs, it will start to coagulate.
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Patent Flour
Is the term given to flour of top quality.  It represents a low extraction rate, less than 72%.  This will produce a flour that is very white in colour.  Extraction is the percentage flour obtained from the wheat grain.  A low extraction rate flour will contain only the white starchy material (endosperm) from the inner most parts of the wheat grain.  Flour obtained from wheat close to the outer skin will be darker in colour as it will contain tiny fragments of bran, which are brown in colour.
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pH
A measurement of acidity and alkalinity on a scale from 0 to 14.  The midpoint 7 represents neutral, below 7 indicates higher hydrogen ion concentrations (acidic) and pH above 7 indicates higher hydroxyl ion concentrations (alkaline).  pH levels in baking can be very critical for reactions to place and for preservation.  
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Polymorphism
The capability of hard fats to change into several crystaline forms, each with its own melting point, structure and solubility.  High melting point crystals are designated as Beta- form and low melting point crystals as Alpha- form.
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Poppy Seed
Tiny, round, hard seeds with a slightly nutlike flavour obtained from Papaver somniferum, of the poppy family and grown in Europe.  Used as a decoration on bread and inside some types of cakes (lemon and poppy seed).
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Preservative
A chemical substance which, when added to foodstuffs, helps to preserve them against spoilage by microorganisms, oxidation or decomposition.  Typical preservatives include mould and rope (see rope) inhibitors and antioxidants.
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Proofing
In bread baking, this term indicates the period of time a product is allowed to rise after it is shaped and placed on or in pans. Products are usually proofed until doubled in size, or when a finger, lightly placed on the side of the loaf, leaves an indentation. Products are "proofed" in a humid, draft-free, 95°F to 100°F place. In homes, a barely damp, clean, non-terry cloth towel or plastic wrap sprayed with pan spray may be lightly placed over the product to prevent the crust from drying. Some ovens have a proofing feature. Follow the manufacturer's use guide.
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Pullman Pan
A bread pan for making rectangle shaped bread, which when cut gives square slices.  The pan has a lid to keep the top of the bread flat, as for the bottom.  This is the typical sandwich bread shape in the UK.
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Pumpernickel
A medium- to coarsely ground, rye flour, light brown in colour. It may be labelled "medium rye." A mixture of rye and wheat flour used to produce a distinctive bread. Molasses are usually used to add colour and flavour.
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Rancidity
Occurs in fats and oils by mainly oxidation but also enzymes and bacteria.  It is easily recognisable by its offensive smell and taste generated or imparted to the product it is contained in.  The addition of antioxidants will help to retard the onset of rancidity.
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Reconstitute
To restore dehydrated products such as milk and egg powder back to their original liquid state by the addition of water.
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Reducing Agent
Name given to any chemical capable of removing oxygen from a compound.  In dough processing the addition of a reducing agent splits the disulphide bonds (-SS-) in flour proteins that link adjacent polypeptide chains.  By creating two dissociated sulphydryl groups (-SH), it causes the dough to become more pliable and extensible.  This is advantageous when producing no-time doughs and where intermediate proof is minimal.  Common reducing agents include L-cysteine, sodium metabisulphite and sorbic acid.
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Riboflavin
Originally called vitamin B₂ and is added to flour as an enrichment ingredient.  It is an essential vitamin for growth in the young, developing and maintaining body tissue, an for general health.  (see vitamins)
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Ripe Dough
A fermented dough which has attained optimum degree of development (maturity) either by fermentation in bulk of the mixed dough or by a combination of chemicals and intense mixing to be suitable for the next stages of processing.
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Rope
Spoilage of baked bread caused by the bacteria Bacillus mesentericus.  It produces enzymes which break down both the starch and protein fractions of the crumb leading to a darkening of the crumb, formation of silky strands (rope) when slices of the bread are pulled apart and a fruity smell similar to an over ripe melon.  A bakery will be shut down if rope is found and will only re-open after extreme cleaning.
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Rounding
Usually applied to the first mould.  The pre-weighed dough piece is processed into a ball shape with a smooth, dry outer surface.  This helps minimise subsequent gas diffusion from the dough and also prepares the dough to make the final moulding (shaping) more consistent.
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Royal Icing
An icing prepared from icing sugar and egg whites.  It is used to cover and decorate cakes, using shaped nozzles when piping.  Sets to form a hard, brittle icing therefore glycerine is often added to prevent the icing from setting fully.  Celebration cakes today generally use sugar paste for covering cakes as this can be pinned out and placed over the cake whereas the royal icing requires more experience.
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Salt
Salt (NaCl - Sodium Chloride) is one of earths most abundant minerals found either in the sea or in underground deposits.  It is retrieved by; evaporation of sea water in hot climates, controlled solution mining or mining from underground rock salt deposits.  Underground salt supplies originate from when seas covered more of the earths surface than they do today.  As the area of sea reduced over time, the salt layers were left and subsequently covered with deposits of earth and rock.

Salt is a multi-functional ingredient in the baking industry.  Although associated with bad press because of its sodium content, its use in food cannot be replaced straightforwardly.  Its uses include; flavour provider and enhancer, control of yeast activity in fermented goods, strengthening gluten in breads, preserving food (curing), reducing 'water activity' (water available for mould to grow).  Salt is eleven times more effective than sugar in reducing water activity so it is an excellent ingredient for extending the shelf life of cakes.  The drawback with its use is that its flavour would be detectable and unacceptable at relatively low levels in cakes.
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Sesame Seed
A small, oval creamy-white seed obtained from the plant Sesamum indicum.  It is mainly used as a dressing on bread which is applied before baking.  The seed develops a taste similar to roasted nuts when baked on the bread.
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Shortening
Can be vegetable or animal fat, or be combined from both.  It is designed to have maximum creaming properties and resistance to rancidity.  It is 100% fat with no added salt, water or colour.  They are often used as part replacement of butter or margarine as complete replacement can impart a greasy feel to the products they are used in.  
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Short Paste
A pastry made from flour, fat, sugar and egg and/or water.  The pastry has an outer crispness with melt-in-the-mouth eating qualities.  These qualities are achieved because of the high level of fat, low level of water in the recipe and delicate mixing procedure, which prevent the formation of enough gluten to cause toughness to the pastry.  
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Silicone
Silicone is a non-stick reusable paper which is placed onto a baking sheet to prevent products from sticking to it and picking up the carbon build-up on most trays.  Products with sugar are susceptible to sticking. 
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Sodium Stearoyl-2-Lactylate (SSL)
An emulsifier used in bread dough to improve loaf volume, dough tolerance, gluten strength, machineability and crumb softness of the baked bread.
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Specific Gravity
The ratio of the weight of a given volume of any substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.  The specific gravity of water being 1.0, substances heavier than water will be more than 1.0 and substances lighter than water will be less than 1.0.  Examples of typical measurements are; for sponges, 0.4-0.7 and cakes 0.8-0.95.  Specific gravity can be used for quality control when mixing sponge and cake batters.  For example, if standard production for sponge production was 0.45 and product at 0.6 was being produced, then a problem with the ingredients, recipe or mixing procedure could have occurred.  
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Specific Heat
The number of calories required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C.
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Specific Volume
The volume occupied by the unit weight of a product.  It is measured in the volume in cubic centimetres per gram (cm³ /g), this measurement is derived by dividing the products volume by its weight.
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Spring Wheat
Wheat which is planted in wheat in regions where the winters are too severe for winter wheat varieties.  They yield flour of generally high protein contents and quality.
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Sterilisation
A process of destroying all living microorganisms by means of high temperatures produced with steam, dry heat or boiling liquid.  The drawback to this treatment are that changes to the product, which is heated, can be quite different from its untreated equivalent.  UHT milk is an example of a sterile product but it contains a burnt flavour.
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Sugar Batter Cake Mixing Method
This is the traditional way to mix a cake batter.  Today this method is seldom used as modern ingredients allow for much shorter mixing times and less cumbersome procedures.  The fat, sugar and salt are mixed together with a beater for 10 minutes on medium to high speed.  Whole egg is added over five minutes in about four additions, scraping the sides of the bowl between each addition.  The flour and baking powder (sieved together) are blended in on slow speed and the milk is streamed in until a smooth, clear batter is formed.
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Surfactant
A substance, also referred to as an emulsifier.  Common to baking would include monoglycerides, DATEM, Sodium Stearoyl-2-Lactylate.  A surfactant will reduce the surface tension of a liquid or solution to which it is to be added.
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Syneresis
This is the name given to the phenomenon of gel shrinkage and seepage of the liquid held within.  In fillings and creams which contain high water contents this is also known as weeping.
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Thiamine
A B group vitamin known as B₁.  It is one of the mandatory vitamins added to flour.  It is beneficial for growth, proper metabolism of carbohydrates and normal functionality of the nervous system.  It also helps to reduce the risk of Beriberi.  (see vitamins)
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Titanium Dioxide
A white, powdery water-insoluble pigment, used to accentuate the whiteness of certain bakery products, especially icings.
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Triglyceride
An ester, which combines one molecule of glycerol with three molecules of fatty acids.  Triglycerides that are solid at room temperature are called fats, whereas if liquid at room temperature they are called oils.
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Unleavened Bread
Bread which does not contain any yeast (microorganisms) or baking powder (chemicals) to lighten (aerate) the texture and create volume.  Some Ethnic breads fall into this category.
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Viscoelasticity
For dough to perform at optimum through all processing stages it must have the correct blend of viscous flow or extensibility and elasticity or resistance to deformation.
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Vitamins
Are organic substances produced in animal and plant tissues and is required, in tiny amounts, for normal metabolic and physical reactions such as participation in enzyme activity, tissue regeneration, growth promotion and the prevention of specific pathological conditions.  The vitamins are classified into their solubility, water soluble vitamins include ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and the B group (Thiamine B₁, Riboflavin B_2, Niacin, Pyridoxine
B₆, Pantophenic acid, Biotin, Cobalamin B₁₂, Folic Acid, fat soluble vitamins comprise A, D, E and K.

Vitamin A
Retinol, obtained from carotene and present in green and yellow vegetables, butter, milk and egg yolk.  Essential for growth in the young, for healthy skin and for the prevention of night blindness.
Vitamin B₁
See Thiamin
Vitamin B₂
See Riboflavin
Vitamin B₁₂
Cobalamin, present in liver, milk, eggs and fish.  Required for the prevention of pernicious anemia and disorders of the nervous system.
Vitamin C
See Ascorbic Acid
Vitamin D
Found in milk and fish liver oils and are essential in the formation of strong and healthy teeth and bones.  Deficiency of vitamin D in the young would cause Rickets.
Vitamin E
Found in wheat germ oil, butter and egg yolk.  It is also known as Tocopherol.  It is an antioxidant and assists in the maintenance of the body's cell membranes.
Vitamin K
Naphthoquinones found in green leafy vegetables but is formed in the bowl of humans to provide enough for the needs of the body, therefore supplements are generally not required.  It is often given to new born babies in the form of an injection.  Its function in the body is for normal clotting of the blood.
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Water
This ingredient is often overlooked as an 'ingredient'.  Most bakery products will contain some water whether direct from the mains or from within other ingredients like eggs and milk.  In doughs it is necessary for the formation of gluten.  Water is also required to allow the starch to swell and to bring other ingredients into direct contact with each other to allow all the complex reactions within bread to occur.

Water quality is very important.  Extremely alkaline water can affect dough fermentation by raising the pH above the optimum at which yeast and other enzymes function.  It will also affect the performance of mould and rope inhibitors.  Acidifying agents are therefore required to reduce the alkalinity of the water and the dough.  Extremely hard or soft water can cause problems within dough.  Water too soft is deficient in minerals which help tighten the gluten network.  Fortification with minerals is necessary to compensate.  Water too hard can retard fermentation by toughening the gluten.  More yeast or less dough improver, if used, are ways to speed up fermentation.  Water hardness is due to the presence of calcium and magnesium salts in high amounts.  A water softener is used to remove or reduce minerals to an acceptable level.
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Water Activity
The ratio of the vapor pressure of moisture in a food to the vapor pressure of water at the same temperature.  It is the equivalent to one hundredth of the relative humidity generated by the food within a closed system (e.g. a wrapped cake).  Water activity (A_w) measurement is used as a guide to the products susceptibility to microbiological spoilage.  High water activities (0.8-0.95) are ideal conditions for mould growth, the common spoilage to many bakery products, especially when wrapped in moisture impermeable materials.
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Waxy Maize
A corn mutant whose starch is composed almost entirely of amylopectin rather than a blend with amylose.  The starch derived is called waxy maize starch.  This starch gelatinizes at a lower temperature to regular maize starch and yields a clear, stringy paste.  Commercially it is generally chemically modified to enable, the production of short textured pastes, and to attain certain special properties as for freeze / thaw stability.
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Winter Wheat
Wheat which is planted in the Autumn, in regions where the winters are relatively mild and dry.  The wheat commences growth prior to the onset of the cold periods in winter, it then lies dormant until resuming active growth in spring, reaching maturity in early summer.  Hard and soft wheat varieties can be grown as winter wheats.
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Yeast
Is a living unicellular plant (saccharomyces cerevisiae).  Contains various enzymes which convert the flour starch into fermentable sugars, which are further broken down into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.  Without yeast the dough would be classed 'unleavened' and have a dense, heavy structure.  Compressed yeast is the most commonly used form but yeast is also available as a cream (liquid) which is used by the industrial sector or as a dry powder, active or instant.  Active yeast requires re-hydrating with water before use but instant yeast can be added with the other dry ingredients when making fermented dough.

Home baking yeast may be active dry or fast-rising. Fresh or compressed yeast also may be available in some supermarkets.  One-quarter ounce of dry yeast is about 2¼ teaspoons and equals one 0.6-ounce cake of compressed fresh yeast.
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Home Baking Co. PO Box 483, Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire, WD3 7HD, United Kingdom.
Tel / Fax: 0044 (0)1923 778353
www.homebakingco.com     www.kiddiekraft.com
enquiries@homebakingco.com
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